diff --git a/src/runtime-rs/crates/agent/src/types.rs b/src/runtime-rs/crates/agent/src/types.rs
index 3ac22715be..c89fdc675f 100644
--- a/src/runtime-rs/crates/agent/src/types.rs
+++ b/src/runtime-rs/crates/agent/src/types.rs
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ pub struct StringUser {
     pub additional_gids: Vec<String>,
 }
 
-#[derive(PartialEq, Clone, Default)]
+#[derive(PartialEq, Clone, Debug, Default)]
 pub struct Device {
     pub id: String,
     pub field_type: String,
diff --git a/src/runtime-rs/crates/resource/src/cdi_devices/container_device.rs b/src/runtime-rs/crates/resource/src/cdi_devices/container_device.rs
index 867d02f15a..0e3fb750dd 100644
--- a/src/runtime-rs/crates/resource/src/cdi_devices/container_device.rs
+++ b/src/runtime-rs/crates/resource/src/cdi_devices/container_device.rs
@@ -106,3 +106,370 @@ pub fn annotate_container_devices(
 
     Ok(devices_agent)
 }
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+    use crate::cdi_devices::DeviceInfo;
+    use agent::types::Device;
+    use oci_spec::runtime::SpecBuilder;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sort_devices_by_guest_pcipath() {
+        let mut devices = vec![
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0xffff".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x030x".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device3"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path03=BB:DD03.F03".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0xffff".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x030x".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device1"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path01=BB:DD01.F01".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0xffff".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x030x".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device2"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path02=BB:DD02.F02".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        sort_devices_by_guest_pcipath(&mut devices);
+
+        let expected_devices_order = vec![
+            "/dev/device1".to_string(),
+            "/dev/device2".to_string(),
+            "/dev/device3".to_string(),
+        ];
+        let actual_devices_order: Vec<String> = devices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|cd| {
+                cd.device_info
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .unwrap()
+                    .host_path
+                    .display()
+                    .to_string()
+            })
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(actual_devices_order, expected_devices_order);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_sort_devices_with_empty_options() {
+        let mut devices = vec![
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0xffff".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x030x".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device1"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    options: vec![], // empty
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0xffff".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x030x".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device2"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path02=BB:DD02.F02".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        sort_devices_by_guest_pcipath(&mut devices);
+
+        // As the first device has no options, ignore it.
+        let expected_devices_order = vec!["BB:DD02.F02".to_string()];
+
+        let actual_devices_order: Vec<String> = devices
+            .iter()
+            .filter_map(|d| d.device.options.first())
+            .map(|option| option.split('=').nth(1).unwrap_or("").to_string())
+            .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(actual_devices_order, expected_devices_order);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_annotate_container_devices() {
+        let devices = vec![
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000x".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/xvdx".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/vdx".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x1002".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device2"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device2".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path02=BB:DD02.F02".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x1002".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device3"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device3".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path03=BB:DD03.F03".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x1002".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device1"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device1".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path01=BB:DD01.F01".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000yx".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/xvdyx".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/vdyx".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let annotations = HashMap::new();
+        let mut spec = SpecBuilder::default()
+            .annotations(annotations)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // do annotate container devices
+        let _devices = annotate_container_devices(&mut spec, devices);
+
+        let expected_annotations: HashMap<String, String> = vec![
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice3.0".to_owned(),
+                "amd.com/gpu=2".to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice1.0".to_owned(),
+                "amd.com/gpu=0".to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice2.0".to_owned(),
+                "amd.com/gpu=1".to_owned(),
+            ),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(Some(expected_annotations), spec.annotations().clone());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_annotate_container_multi_vendor_devices() {
+        let devices = vec![
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000x".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/xvdx".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/vdx".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x10de".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device2"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device2".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path02=BB:DD02.F02".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x10de".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device3"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device3".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path03=BB:DD03.F03".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x8086".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device1"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device1".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path01=BB:DD01.F01".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: Some(DeviceInfo {
+                    vendor_id: "0x8086".to_string(),
+                    class_id: "0x0302".to_string(),
+                    host_path: PathBuf::from("/dev/device4"),
+                }),
+                device: Device {
+                    container_path: "/dev/device4".to_string(),
+                    options: vec!["pci_host_path04=BB:DD01.F04".to_string()],
+                    ..Default::default()
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000yx".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/xvdyx".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/vdyx".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let annotations = HashMap::new();
+        let mut spec = SpecBuilder::default()
+            .annotations(annotations)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        let _devices = annotate_container_devices(&mut spec, devices);
+
+        let expected_annotations: HashMap<String, String> = vec![
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice1.0".to_owned(),
+                "intel.com/gpu=0".to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice2.0".to_owned(),
+                "nvidia.com/gpu=0".to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice3.0".to_owned(),
+                "nvidia.com/gpu=1".to_owned(),
+            ),
+            (
+                "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodevice4.0".to_owned(),
+                "intel.com/gpu=1".to_owned(),
+            ),
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect();
+
+        assert_eq!(Some(expected_annotations), spec.annotations().clone());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_annotate_container_without_vfio_devices() {
+        let devices = vec![
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000x".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/xvdx".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/vdx".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000y".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/yvdy".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/vdy".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+            ContainerDevice {
+                device_info: None,
+                device: Device {
+                    id: "test0000z".to_string(),
+                    container_path: "/dev/zvdz".to_string(),
+                    field_type: "virtio-blk".to_string(),
+                    vm_path: "/dev/zvdz".to_string(),
+                    options: vec![],
+                },
+            },
+        ];
+
+        let annotations = HashMap::from([(
+            "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodeviceX".to_owned(),
+            "katacontainer.com/device=Y".to_owned(),
+        )]);
+        let mut spec = SpecBuilder::default()
+            .annotations(annotations)
+            .build()
+            .unwrap();
+
+        // do annotate container devices
+        let annotated_devices = annotate_container_devices(&mut spec, devices.clone()).unwrap();
+
+        let actual_devices = devices
+            .iter()
+            .map(|d| d.device.clone())
+            .collect::<Vec<Device>>();
+        let expected_annotations: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::from([(
+            "cdi.k8s.io/vfiodeviceX".to_owned(),
+            "katacontainer.com/device=Y".to_owned(),
+        )]);
+
+        assert_eq!(Some(expected_annotations), spec.annotations().clone());
+        assert_eq!(annotated_devices, actual_devices);
+    }
+}