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<h2>PLEASE NOTE: This document applies to the HEAD of the source tree</h2>

If you are using a released version of Kubernetes, you should
refer to the docs that go with that version.

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<strong>
The latest release of this document can be found
[here](http://releases.k8s.io/release-1.1/docs/proposals/federation.md).

Documentation for other releases can be found at
[releases.k8s.io](http://releases.k8s.io).
</strong>
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# Kubernetes Cluster Federation

## (a.k.a. "Ubernetes")

## Requirements Analysis and Product Proposal

## _by Quinton Hoole ([quinton@google.com](mailto:quinton@google.com))_

_Initial revision: 2015-03-05_
_Last updated: 2015-08-20_
This doc: [tinyurl.com/ubernetesv2](http://tinyurl.com/ubernetesv2)
Original slides: [tinyurl.com/ubernetes-slides](http://tinyurl.com/ubernetes-slides)
Updated slides: [tinyurl.com/ubernetes-whereto](http://tinyurl.com/ubernetes-whereto)

## Introduction

Today, each Kubernetes cluster is a relatively self-contained unit,
which typically runs in a single "on-premise" data centre or single
availability zone of a cloud provider (Google's GCE, Amazon's AWS,
etc).

Several current and potential Kubernetes users and customers have
expressed a keen interest in tying together ("federating") multiple
clusters in some sensible way in order to enable the following kinds
of use cases (intentionally vague):

1. _"Preferentially run my workloads in my on-premise cluster(s), but
   automatically overflow to my cloud-hosted cluster(s) if I run out
   of on-premise capacity"_.
1. _"Most of my workloads should run in my preferred cloud-hosted
   cluster(s), but some are privacy-sensitive, and should be
   automatically diverted to run in my secure, on-premise
   cluster(s)"_.
1. _"I want to avoid vendor lock-in, so I want my workloads to run
   across multiple cloud providers all the time.  I change my set of
   such cloud providers, and my pricing contracts with them,
   periodically"_.
1. _"I want to be immune to any single data centre or cloud
   availability zone outage, so I want to spread my service across
   multiple such zones (and ideally even across multiple cloud
   providers)."_

The above use cases are by necessity left imprecisely defined.  The
rest of this document explores these use cases and their implications
in further detail, and compares a few alternative high level
approaches to addressing them.  The idea of cluster federation has
informally become known as_ "Ubernetes"_.

## Summary/TL;DR

Four primary customer-driven use cases are explored in more detail.
The two highest priority ones relate to High Availability and
Application Portability (between cloud providers, and between
on-premise and cloud providers).

Four primary federation primitives are identified (location affinity,
cross-cluster scheduling, service discovery and application
migration).  Fortunately not all four of these primitives are required
for each primary use case, so incremental development is feasible.

## What exactly is a Kubernetes Cluster?

A central design concept in Kubernetes is that of a _cluster_. While
loosely speaking, a cluster can be thought of as running in a single
data center, or cloud provider availability zone, a more precise
definition is that each cluster provides:

1. a single Kubernetes API entry point,
1. a consistent, cluster-wide resource naming scheme
1. a scheduling/container placement domain
1. a service network routing domain
1. an authentication and authorization model.

The above in turn imply the need for a relatively performant, reliable
and cheap network within each cluster.

There is also assumed to be some degree of failure correlation across
a cluster, i.e.  whole clusters are expected to fail, at least
occasionally (due to cluster-wide power and network failures, natural
disasters etc). Clusters are often relatively homogeneous in that all
compute nodes are typically provided by a single cloud provider or
hardware vendor, and connected by a common, unified network fabric.
But these are not hard requirements of Kubernetes.

Other classes of Kubernetes deployments than the one sketched above
are technically feasible, but come with some challenges of their own,
and are not yet common or explicitly supported.

More specifically, having a Kubernetes cluster span multiple
well-connected availability zones within a single geographical region
(e.g. US North East, UK, Japan etc) is worthy of further
consideration, in particular because it potentially addresses
some of these requirements.

## What use cases require Cluster Federation?

Let's name a few concrete use cases to aid the discussion:

## 1.Capacity Overflow

_"I want to preferentially run my workloads in my on-premise cluster(s), but automatically "overflow" to my cloud-hosted cluster(s) when I run out of on-premise capacity."_

This idea is known in some circles as "[cloudbursting](http://searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com/definition/cloud-bursting)".

**Clarifying questions:** What is the unit of overflow?  Individual
  pods? Probably not always.  Replication controllers and their
  associated sets of pods?  Groups of replication controllers
  (a.k.a. distributed applications)?  How are persistent disks
  overflowed?  Can the "overflowed" pods communicate with their
  brethren and sistren pods and services in the other cluster(s)?
  Presumably yes, at higher cost and latency, provided that they use
  external service discovery. Is "overflow" enabled only when creating
  new workloads/replication controllers, or are existing workloads
  dynamically migrated between clusters based on fluctuating available
  capacity?  If so, what is the desired behaviour, and how is it
  achieved?  How, if at all, does this relate to quota enforcement
  (e.g. if we run out of on-premise capacity, can all or only some
  quotas transfer to other, potentially more expensive off-premise
  capacity?)

It seems that most of this boils down to:

1. **location affinity** (pods relative to each other, and to other
   stateful services like persistent storage - how is this expressed
   and enforced?)
1. **cross-cluster scheduling** (given location affinity constraints
   and other scheduling policy, which resources are assigned to which
   clusters, and by what?)
1. **cross-cluster service discovery** (how do pods in one cluster
   discover and communicate with pods in another cluster?)
1. **cross-cluster migration** (how do compute and storage resources,
   and the distributed applications to which they belong, move from
   one cluster to another)
1. **cross-cluster load-balancing** (how does is user traffic directed
   to an appropriate cluster?)
1. **cross-cluster monitoring and auditing** (a.k.a. Unified Visibility)

## 2. Sensitive Workloads

_"I want most of my workloads to run in my preferred cloud-hosted
cluster(s), but some are privacy-sensitive, and should be
automatically diverted to run in my secure, on-premise cluster(s). The
list of privacy-sensitive workloads changes over time, and they're
subject to external auditing."_

**Clarifying questions:**
1. What kinds of rules determine which
workloads go where?
  1. Is there in fact a requirement to have these rules be
      declaratively expressed and automatically enforced, or is it
      acceptable/better to have users manually select where to run
      their workloads when starting them?
  1. Is a static mapping from container (or more typically,
      replication controller) to cluster maintained and enforced?
  1. If so, is it only enforced on startup, or are things migrated
      between clusters when the mappings change?

This starts to look quite similar to "1. Capacity Overflow", and again
seems to boil down to:

1. location affinity
1. cross-cluster scheduling
1. cross-cluster service discovery
1. cross-cluster migration
1. cross-cluster monitoring and auditing
1. cross-cluster load balancing

## 3. Vendor lock-in avoidance

_"My CTO wants us to avoid vendor lock-in, so she wants our workloads
to run across multiple cloud providers at all times.  She changes our
set of preferred cloud providers and pricing contracts with them
periodically, and doesn't want to have to communicate and manually
enforce these policy changes across the organization every time this
happens.  She wants it centrally and automatically enforced, monitored
and audited."_

**Clarifying questions:**

1. How does this relate to other use cases (high availability,
capacity overflow etc), as they may all be across multiple vendors.
It's probably not strictly speaking a separate
use case, but it's brought up so often as a requirement, that it's
worth calling out explicitly.
1. Is a useful intermediate step to make it as simple as possible to
   migrate an application from one vendor to another in a one-off fashion?

Again, I think that this can probably be
  reformulated as a Capacity Overflow problem - the fundamental
  principles seem to be the same or substantially similar to those
  above.

## 4. "High Availability"

_"I want to be immune to any single data centre or cloud availability
zone outage, so I want to spread my service across multiple such zones
(and ideally even across multiple cloud providers), and have my
service remain available even if one of the availability zones or
cloud providers "goes down"_.

It seems useful to split this into multiple sets of sub use cases:

1. Multiple availability zones within a single cloud provider (across
   which feature sets like private networks, load balancing,
   persistent disks, data snapshots etc are typically consistent and
   explicitly designed to inter-operate).
   1. within the same geographical region (e.g. metro) within which network
   is fast and cheap enough to be almost analogous to a single data
   center.
   1. across multiple geographical regions, where high network cost and
   poor network performance may be prohibitive.
1. Multiple cloud providers (typically with inconsistent feature sets,
   more limited interoperability, and typically no cheap inter-cluster
   networking described above).

The single cloud provider case might be easier to implement (although
the multi-cloud provider implementation should just work for a single
cloud provider).  Propose high-level design catering for both, with
initial implementation targeting single cloud provider only.

**Clarifying questions:**
**How does global external service discovery work?** In the steady
  state, which external clients connect to which clusters?  GeoDNS or
  similar?  What is the tolerable failover latency if a cluster goes
  down?  Maybe something like (make up some numbers, notwithstanding
  some buggy DNS resolvers, TTL's, caches etc) ~3 minutes for ~90% of
  clients to re-issue DNS lookups and reconnect to a new cluster when
  their home cluster fails is good enough for most Kubernetes users
  (or at least way better than the status quo), given that these sorts
  of failure only happen a small number of times a year?

**How does dynamic load balancing across clusters work, if at all?**
  One simple starting point might be "it doesn't".  i.e. if a service
  in a cluster is deemed to be "up", it receives as much traffic as is
  generated "nearby" (even if it overloads).  If the service is deemed
  to "be down" in a given cluster, "all" nearby traffic is redirected
  to some other cluster within some number of seconds (failover could
  be automatic or manual).  Failover is essentially binary.  An
  improvement would be to detect when a service in a cluster reaches
  maximum serving capacity, and dynamically divert additional traffic
  to other clusters.  But how exactly does all of this work, and how
  much of it is provided by Kubernetes, as opposed to something else
  bolted on top (e.g. external monitoring and manipulation of GeoDNS)?

**How does this tie in with auto-scaling of services?** More
  specifically, if I run my service across _n_ clusters globally, and
  one (or more) of them fail, how do I ensure that the remaining _n-1_
  clusters have enough capacity to serve the additional, failed-over
  traffic?  Either:

1. I constantly over-provision all clusters by 1/n (potentially expensive), or
1. I "manually" (or automatically) update my replica count configurations in the
   remaining clusters by 1/n when the failure occurs, and Kubernetes
   takes care of the rest for me, or
1. Auto-scaling in the remaining clusters takes
   care of it for me automagically as the additional failed-over
   traffic arrives (with some latency).  Note that this implies that
   the cloud provider keeps the necessary resources on hand to
   accommodate such auto-scaling (e.g. via something similar to AWS reserved
   and spot instances)

Up to this point, this use case ("Unavailability Zones") seems materially different from all the others above.  It does not require dynamic cross-cluster service migration (we assume that the service is already running in more than one cluster when the failure occurs).  Nor does it necessarily involve cross-cluster service discovery or location affinity.  As a result, I propose that we address this use case somewhat independently of the others (although I strongly suspect that it will become substantially easier once we've solved the others).

All of the above (regarding "Unavailibility Zones") refers primarily
to already-running user-facing services, and minimizing the impact on
end users of those services becoming unavailable in a given cluster.
What about the people and systems that deploy Kubernetes services
(devops etc)?  Should they be automatically shielded from the impact
of the cluster outage? i.e. have their new resource creation requests
automatically diverted to another cluster during the outage?  While
this specific requirement seems non-critical (manual fail-over seems
relatively non-arduous, ignoring the user-facing issues above), it
smells a lot like the first three use cases listed above ("Capacity
Overflow, Sensitive Services, Vendor lock-in..."), so if we address
those, we probably get this one free of charge.

## Core Challenges of Cluster Federation

As we saw above, a few common challenges fall out of most of the use
cases considered above, namely:

## Location Affinity

Can the pods comprising a single distributed application be
partitioned across more than one cluster? More generally, how far
apart, in network terms, can a given client and server within a
distributed application reasonably be?  A server need not necessarily
be a pod, but could instead be a persistent disk housing data, or some
other stateful network service.  What is tolerable is typically
application-dependent, primarily influenced by network bandwidth
consumption, latency requirements and cost sensitivity.

For simplicity, lets assume that all Kubernetes distributed
applications fall into one of three categories with respect to relative
location affinity:

1. **"Strictly Coupled"**: Those applications that strictly cannot be
   partitioned between clusters.  They simply fail if they are
   partitioned.  When scheduled, all pods _must_ be scheduled to the
   same cluster.  To move them, we need to shut the whole distributed
   application down (all pods) in one cluster, possibly move some
   data, and then bring the up all of the pods in another cluster.  To
   avoid downtime, we might bring up the replacement cluster and
   divert traffic there before turning down the original, but the
   principle is much the same.  In some cases moving the data might be
   prohibitively expensive or time-consuming, in which case these
   applications may be effectively _immovable_.
1. **"Strictly Decoupled"**: Those applications that can be
   indefinitely partitioned across more than one cluster, to no
   disadvantage.  An embarrassingly parallel YouTube porn detector,
   where each pod repeatedly dequeues a video URL from a remote work
   queue, downloads and chews on the video for a few hours, and
   arrives at a binary verdict, might be one such example. The pods
   derive no benefit from being close to each other, or anything else
   (other than the source of YouTube videos, which is assumed to be
   equally remote from all clusters in this example).  Each pod can be
   scheduled independently, in any cluster, and moved at any time.
1. **"Preferentially Coupled"**: Somewhere between Coupled and
   Decoupled.  These applications prefer to have all of their pods
   located in the same cluster (e.g. for failure correlation, network
   latency or bandwidth cost reasons), but can tolerate being
   partitioned for "short" periods of time (for example while
   migrating the application from one cluster to another). Most small
   to medium sized LAMP stacks with not-very-strict latency goals
   probably fall into this category (provided that they use sane
   service discovery and reconnect-on-fail, which they need to do
   anyway to run effectively, even in a single Kubernetes cluster).

From a fault isolation point of view, there are also opposites of the
above.  For example a master database and it's slave replica might
need to be in different availability zones.  We'll refer to this a
anti-affinity, although it is largely outside the scope of this
document.

Note that there is somewhat of a continuum with respect to network
cost and quality between any two nodes, ranging from two nodes on the
same L2 network segment (lowest latency and cost, highest bandwidth)
to two nodes on different continents (highest latency and cost, lowest
bandwidth). One interesting point on that continuum relates to
multiple availability zones within a well-connected metro or region
and single cloud provider.  Despite being in different data centers,
or areas within a mega data center, network in this case is often very fast
and effectively free or very cheap. For the purposes of this network location
affinity discussion, this case is considered analogous to a single
availability zone. Furthermore,  if a given application doesn't fit
cleanly into one of the above, shoe-horn it into the best fit,
defaulting to the "Strictly Coupled and Immovable" bucket if you're
not sure.

And then there's what I'll call _absolute_ location affinity.  Some
applications are required to run in bounded geographical or network
topology locations.  The reasons for this are typically
political/legislative (data privacy laws etc), or driven by network
proximity to consumers (or data providers) of the application ("most
of our users are in Western Europe, U.S. West Coast" etc).

**Proposal:** First tackle Strictly Decoupled applications (which can
  be trivially scheduled, partitioned or moved, one pod at a time).
  Then tackle Preferentially Coupled applications (which must be
  scheduled in totality in a single cluster, and can be moved, but
  ultimately in total, and necessarily within some bounded time).
  Leave strictly coupled applications to be manually moved between
  clusters as required for the foreseeable future.

## Cross-cluster service discovery

I propose having pods use standard discovery methods used by external
clients of Kubernetes applications (i.e. DNS).  DNS might resolve to a
public endpoint in the local or a remote cluster. Other than Strictly
Coupled applications, software should be largely oblivious of which of
the two occurs.

_Aside:_ How do we avoid "tromboning" through an external VIP when DNS
resolves to a public IP on the local cluster?  Strictly speaking this
would be an optimization for some cases, and probably only matters to
high-bandwidth, low-latency communications.  We could potentially
eliminate the trombone with some kube-proxy magic if necessary. More
detail to be added here, but feel free to shoot down the basic DNS
idea in the mean time.  In addition, some applications rely on private
networking between clusters for security (e.g. AWS VPC or more
generally VPN).  It should not be necessary to forsake this in
order to use Ubernetes, for example by being forced to use public
connectivity between clusters.

## Cross-cluster Scheduling

This is closely related to location affinity above, and also discussed
there.  The basic idea is that some controller, logically outside of
the basic Kubernetes control plane of the clusters in question, needs
to be able to:

1. Receive "global" resource creation requests.
1. Make policy-based decisions as to which cluster(s) should be used
   to fulfill each given resource request. In a simple case, the
   request is just redirected to one cluster.  In a more complex case,
   the request is "demultiplexed" into multiple sub-requests, each to
   a different cluster. Knowledge of the (albeit approximate)
   available capacity in each cluster will be required by the
   controller to sanely split the request.  Similarly, knowledge of
   the properties of the application (Location Affinity class --
   Strictly Coupled, Strictly Decoupled etc, privacy class etc) will
   be required.  It is also conceivable that knowledge of service
   SLAs and monitoring thereof might provide an input into
   scheduling/placement algorithms.
1. Multiplex the responses from the individual clusters into an
   aggregate response.

There is of course a lot of detail still missing from this section,
including discussion of:

1. admission control
1. initial placement of instances of a new
service vs scheduling new instances of an existing service in response
to auto-scaling
1. rescheduling pods due to failure (response might be
different depending on if it's failure of a node, rack, or whole AZ)
1. data placement relative to compute capacity,
etc.

## Cross-cluster Migration

Again this is closely related to location affinity discussed above,
and is in some sense an extension of Cross-cluster Scheduling. When
certain events occur, it becomes necessary or desirable for the
cluster federation system to proactively move distributed applications
(either in part or in whole) from one cluster to another. Examples of
such events include:

1. A low capacity event in a cluster (or a cluster failure).
1. A change of scheduling policy ("we no longer use cloud provider X").
1. A change of resource pricing ("cloud provider Y dropped their
   prices - lets migrate there").

Strictly Decoupled applications can be trivially moved, in part or in
whole, one pod at a time, to one or more clusters (within applicable
policy constraints, for example "PrivateCloudOnly").

For Preferentially Decoupled applications, the federation system must
first locate a single cluster with sufficient capacity to accommodate
the entire application, then reserve that capacity, and incrementally
move the application, one (or more) resources at a time, over to the
new cluster, within some bounded time period (and possibly within a
predefined "maintenance" window).  Strictly Coupled applications (with
the exception of those deemed completely immovable) require the
federation system to:

1. start up an entire replica application in the destination cluster
1. copy persistent data to the new application instance (possibly
   before starting pods)
1. switch user traffic across
1. tear down the original application instance

It is proposed that support for automated migration of Strictly
Coupled applications be deferred to a later date.

## Other Requirements

These are often left implicit by customers, but are worth calling out explicitly:

1. Software failure isolation between Kubernetes clusters should be
   retained as far as is practically possible.  The federation system
   should not materially increase the failure correlation across
   clusters.  For this reason the federation control plane software
   should ideally be completely independent of the Kubernetes cluster
   control software, and look just like any other Kubernetes API
   client, with no special treatment.  If the federation control plane
   software fails catastrophically, the underlying Kubernetes clusters
   should remain independently usable.
1. Unified monitoring, alerting and auditing across federated Kubernetes clusters.
1. Unified authentication, authorization and quota management across
   clusters (this is in direct conflict with failure isolation above,
   so there are some tough trade-offs to be made here).

## Proposed High-Level Architectures

Two distinct potential architectural approaches have emerged from discussions
thus far:

1. An explicitly decoupled and hierarchical architecture, where the
    Federation Control Plane sits logically above a set of independent
    Kubernetes clusters, each of which is (potentially) unaware of the
    other clusters, and of the Federation Control Plane itself (other
    than to the extent that it is an API client much like any other).
    One possible example of this general architecture is illustrated
    below, and will be referred to as the "Decoupled, Hierarchical"
    approach.
1. A more monolithic architecture, where a single instance of the
    Kubernetes control plane itself manages a single logical cluster
    composed of nodes in multiple availability zones and cloud
    providers.

A very brief, non-exhaustive list of pro's and con's of the two
approaches follows.  (In the interest of full disclosure, the author
prefers the Decoupled Hierarchical model for the reasons stated below).

1. **Failure isolation:** The Decoupled Hierarchical approach provides
    better failure isolation than the Monolithic approach, as each
    underlying Kubernetes cluster, and the Federation Control Plane,
    can operate and fail completely independently of each other.  In
    particular, their software and configurations can be updated
    independently. Such updates are, in our experience, the primary
    cause of control-plane failures, in general.
1. **Failure probability:** The Decoupled Hierarchical model incorporates
    numerically more independent pieces of software and configuration
    than the Monolithic one. But the complexity of each of these
    decoupled pieces is arguably better contained in the Decoupled
    model (per standard arguments for modular rather than monolithic
    software design).  Which of the two models presents higher
    aggregate complexity and consequent failure probability remains
    somewhat of an open question.
1. **Scalability:** Conceptually the Decoupled Hierarchical model wins
    here, as each underlying Kubernetes cluster can be scaled
    completely independently w.r.t. scheduling, node state management,
    monitoring, network connectivity etc. It is even potentially
    feasible to stack "Ubernetes" federated clusters (i.e. create
    federations of federations) should scalability of the independent
    Federation Control Plane become an issue (although the author does
    not envision this being a problem worth solving in the short
    term).
1. **Code complexity:** I think that an argument can be made both ways
    here. It depends on whether you prefer to weave the logic for
    handling nodes in multiple availability zones and cloud providers
    within a single logical cluster into the existing Kubernetes
    control plane code base (which was explicitly not designed for
    this), or separate it into a decoupled Federation system (with
    possible code sharing between the two via shared libraries).  The
    author prefers the latter because it:
  1. Promotes better code modularity and interface design.
  1. Allows the code
      bases of Kubernetes and the Federation system to progress
      largely independently (different sets of developers, different
      release schedules etc).
1. **Administration complexity:** Again, I think that this could be argued
    both ways.  Superficially it would seem that administration of a
    single Monolithic multi-zone cluster might be simpler by virtue of
    being only "one thing to manage", however in practise each of the
    underlying availability zones (and possibly cloud providers) has
    it's own capacity, pricing, hardware platforms, and possibly
    bureaucratic boundaries (e.g. "our EMEA IT department manages those
    European clusters").  So explicitly allowing for (but not
    mandating) completely independent administration of each
    underlying Kubernetes cluster, and the Federation system itself,
    in the Decoupled Hierarchical model seems to have real practical
    benefits that outweigh the superficial simplicity of the
    Monolithic model.
1. **Application development and deployment complexity:** It's not clear
    to me that there is any significant difference between the two
    models in this regard.  Presumably the API exposed by the two
    different architectures would look very similar, as would the
    behavior of the deployed applications.  It has even been suggested
    to write the code in such a way that it could be run in either
    configuration.  It's not clear that this makes sense in practise
    though.
1. **Control plane cost overhead:** There is a minimum per-cluster
   overhead -- two possibly virtual machines, or more for redundant HA
   deployments.  For deployments of very small Kubernetes
   clusters with the Decoupled Hierarchical approach, this cost can
   become significant.

### The Decoupled, Hierarchical Approach - Illustrated

![image](federation-high-level-arch.png)

## Ubernetes API

It is proposed that this look a lot like the existing Kubernetes API
but be explicitly multi-cluster.

+ Clusters become first class objects, which can be registered,
   listed, described, deregistered etc via the API.
+ Compute resources can be explicitly requested in specific clusters,
   or automatically scheduled to the "best" cluster by Ubernetes (by a
   pluggable Policy Engine).
+ There is a federated equivalent of a replication controller type (or
   perhaps a [deployment](deployment.md)),
   which is multicluster-aware, and delegates to cluster-specific
   replication controllers/deployments as required (e.g. a federated RC for n
   replicas might simply spawn multiple replication controllers in
   different clusters to do the hard work).

## Policy Engine and Migration/Replication Controllers

The Policy Engine decides which parts of each application go into each
cluster at any point in time, and stores this desired state in the
Desired Federation State store (an etcd or
similar). Migration/Replication Controllers reconcile this against the
desired states stored in the underlying Kubernetes clusters (by
watching both, and creating or updating the underlying Replication
Controllers and related Services accordingly).

## Authentication and Authorization

This should ideally be delegated to some external auth system, shared
by the underlying clusters, to avoid duplication and inconsistency.
Either that, or we end up with multilevel auth.  Local readonly
eventually consistent auth slaves in each cluster and in Ubernetes
could potentially cache auth, to mitigate an SPOF auth system.

## Data consistency, failure and availability characteristics

The services comprising the Ubernetes Control Plane) have to run
   somewhere.  Several options exist here:
* For high availability Ubernetes deployments, these
   services may run in either:
  * a dedicated Kubernetes cluster, not co-located in the same
	 availability zone with any of the federated clusters (for fault
	 isolation reasons).  If that cluster/availability zone, and hence the Federation
	 system, fails catastrophically, the underlying pods and
	 applications continue to run correctly, albeit temporarily
	 without the Federation system.
  * across multiple Kubernetes availability zones, probably with
       some sort of cross-AZ quorum-based store.  This provides
       theoretically higher availability, at the cost of some
       complexity related to data consistency across multiple
       availability zones.
  * For simpler, less highly available deployments, just co-locate the
     Federation control plane in/on/with one of the underlying
     Kubernetes clusters.  The downside of this approach is that if
     that specific cluster fails, all automated failover and scaling
     logic which relies on the federation system will also be
     unavailable at the same time (i.e. precisely when it is needed).
	But if one of the other federated clusters fails, everything
     should work just fine.

There is some further thinking to be done around the data consistency
    model upon which the Federation system is based, and it's impact
    on the detailed semantics, failure and availability
    characteristics of the system.

## Proposed Next Steps

Identify concrete applications of each use case and configure a proof
of concept service that exercises the use case.  For example, cluster
failure tolerance seems popular, so set up an apache frontend with
replicas in each of three availability zones with either an Amazon Elastic
Load Balancer or Google Cloud Load Balancer pointing at them? What
does the zookeeper config look like for N=3 across 3 AZs -- and how
does each replica find the other replicas and how do clients find
their primary zookeeper replica? And now how do I do a shared, highly
available redis database?  Use a few common specific use cases like
this to flesh out the detailed API and semantics of Ubernetes.


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